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How to Manage Pests

Pests in Gardens and Landscapes

Thrips Revised five/14 In this Guideline:

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Stippling as issue of greenhouse thrips feeding.

Blackness carrion and white feeding scars from thrips.

An adult, egg, and two larvae of Cuban laurel thrips.

Euseius predatory mite attacking thrips.

Greenhouse thrips larvae (yellow) with blackness pupae and adult of the Thripobius parasitic wasp.

Thrips, guild Thysanoptera, are tiny, slender insects with fringed wings. They feed by puncturing the epidermal (outer) layer of host tissue and sucking out the prison cell contents, which results in stippling, discolored flecking, or silvering of the leafage surface. Thrips feeding is normally accompanied by black varnishlike flecks of frass (excrement). Pest species are plant feeders that discolor and scar leaf, flower, and fruit surfaces, and distort plant parts or vector plant pathogens. Many species of thrips feed on fungal spores and pollen and are ofttimes innocuous. Yet, pollen feeding on plants such as orchids and African violets can leave unsightly pollen deposits and may reduce flower longevity. Sure thrips are beneficial predators that feed on other insects and mites.

Thrips can readily move long distances floating with the current of air or transported on infested plants, and exotic species are periodically introduced. For instance, myoporum thrips causes severe galling of Myoporum laetum and Chiliad. pacificum. Originally from New Zealand, this thrips was introduced into Southern California and spread to most areas of the country where its hosts are grown. See Pest Annotation: Myoporum Thrips for more data.

IDENTIFICATION

Most adult thrips are elongate, slender, infinitesimal (less than ane/20 inch long), and have long fringes on the margins of both pairs of their long, narrow wings. Immatures (called larvae or nymphs) are oblong or slender and elongate and lack wings. Nearly thrips range in color from translucent white or yellowish to night brownish or black. A few species are brightly colored, such as the distinctive red-orange larvae of the predatory thrips, Franklinothrips orizabensis and F. vespiformis.

Feeding results in various tissue responses, including scar formation and distorted growth. Behavior, trunk appearance, and host plants help to distinguish among thrips species (Table one). For example, 3 nighttime spots on each forewing distinguish the adult predaceous sixspotted thrips from pest thrips. Adults of western flower thrips and onion thrips are noticeably larger than avocado and citrus thrips adults, then mature body size helps to distinguish them when they occur together on the same host plant. Nonprofessionals may exist able to place thrips using the resource listed in References. However, thrips can be positively identified to species only by an proficient. Fortunately, about thrips are susceptible to some of the aforementioned controls, such as exclusion and certain insecticides.

It is more important to distinguish amidst thrips species in situations where integrated pest management methods are used. For example, each species of natural enemy preys on and helps to control just certain species of thrips or other pests. Certain thrips occur on many different plants but damage only a few of the institute species on which they are constitute. Identifying the species of thrips may reveal that information technology is harmless in sure situations and no control action is needed. For example, avocado thrips and greenhouse thrips superficially scar avocado fruit skin. Citrus thrips and western blossom thrips are also found in avocado but do non impairment avocados. Citrus thrips occur on many species of plants only damage just blueberries and citrus.

LIFE Bicycle

Thrips hatch from an egg and develop through two actively feeding larval stages and two nonfeeding stages, the prepupa and pupa, before becoming an adult. Late-instar larvae change profoundly in appearance and behavior and are called prepupae and pupae, even though thrips exercise not have a truthful pupal stage.

Females of near establish-feeding species lay their elongate, cylindrical to kidney-shaped eggs on or into leaves, buds, or other locations where larvae feed. The pale prepupae and pupae of most species drib to the soil or leaf litter or gild within constitute crevices or galls. Greenhouse thrips pupate openly on lower leaf surfaces; while pupae (and eggs) of some gall-making species, such every bit Cuban laurel thrips and myoporum thrips, occur on leaf surfaces merely are enclosed inside distorted plant tissue. Thrips have several generations (up to well-nigh eight) a twelvemonth. When the weather condition is warm, the life cycle from egg to developed may be completed in every bit short a time as 2 weeks.

Damage

Thrips feeding on plants tin harm fruit, leaves, and shoots and very noticeably impact plants' corrective appearance. However, thrips rarely kill or threaten the survival of copse and shrubs. Herbaceous ornamentals, and certain vegetable crops, are more susceptible to serious injury from thrips feeding and thrips-vectored viruses, especially when plants are young.

Thrips feeding can stunt plant growth and crusade damaged leaves to become papery and distorted, develop tiny pale spots (stippling), and drop prematurely. Infested terminals may discolor and become rolled. Petals may showroom "color intermission," which is pale or dark discoloring of petal tissue that was killed by thrips feeding before buds opened. On some plants thrips tin cause severe stunting to the early on season flush of last growth. Cuban laurel thrips create tightly rolled, podlike leaf terminals on Ficus and form galled foliage from midsummer through autumn. Myoporum thrips can create tightly bunched and twisted terminal growth that resembles a gall, within which large numbers of thrips can survive and reproduce.

Western flower thrips is primarily a pest of herbaceous plants; but high populations can harm flowers on woody plants, such equally roses. Rose petals may develop nighttime streaks and spots from feeding injury that occurred before the buds opened, or the flower buds may deform and fail to open. Western bloom thrips likewise vectors Impatiens necrotic spot virus and Love apple spotted wilt virus, which can severely damage or kill certain vegetable crops and herbaceous ornamentals.

Thrips cause brown to silvery, scabby scarring on the avocado and citrus fruit surface but do not harm the internal quality or flavour of the fruit. Where thrips lay eggs on grapes, fruit may develop dark scars surrounded past lighter "halos." Thrips feeding on apples, nectarines, and raspberries can deform or scar developing fruit. Citrus thrips feeding severely distorts blueberry shoot tips and foliage, reducing fruit yield.

In many thrips species, by the time their damage is observed, such as after buds open up, the thrips may no longer exist present. Some abiotic disorders, pathogens, and certain other invertebrates can cause damage resembling that of thrips. For example, various true bugs and mites besides stipple foliage; and some true bugs produce dark fecal specks. Earlier taking control activeness, look carefully for the insects themselves to exist certain that pest thrips are present and the cause of the damage.

Management

Thrips are difficult to command. If management is necessary, utilize an integrated program that combines the utilise of good cultural practices, natural enemies, and the most selective or to the lowest degree-toxic insecticides that are effective in that situation.

Monitoring

If thrips are a suspected cause of institute damage, thrips adults and larvae can exist monitored past branch beating or gently shaking leaf or flowers onto a light-colored sheet of paper, chirapsia tray, or modest cloth. For thrips that feed in buds or unexpanded shoot tips, clip off several plant parts suspected of harboring thrips, identify them in a jar with 70% alcohol (ethanol), and shake vigorously to dislodge the thrips. Strain the solution through filter paper so thrips can more than readily be seen. Sentinel the online video demonstration of this technique.

Adult thrips can also be monitored past hanging brilliant yellow pasty traps in or near host plants.

Be aware that the presence of thrips does not hateful that damage volition result from their feeding. Large numbers of thrips in traps, or adults in flowers feeding on pollen, do not necessarily bespeak that command action is needed. Plants suspected of being infected by thrips-vectored viruses can exist reliably diagnosed only by sending properly collected samples from symptomatic plants to a laboratory that tests for plant pathogens.

Biological Control

Predatory thrips (Tabular array 2), greenish lacewings, minute pirate bugs, mites, and sure parasitic wasps help to control institute-feeding thrips. To conserve and encourage naturally occurring populations of these beneficials, avert creating grit and consider periodically rinsing dust off of small-scale plants, avoid persistent pesticides, and abound a diversity of plant species.

Where thrips are a trouble, learn whether that pest has specific natural enemies important in its control. For instance, a minute pirate bug, Macrotracheliella nigra, and dark-green lacewing larvae are important predators of Cuban laurel thrips. Euseius species mites are of import predators of citrus thrips. With greenhouse thrips in Southern California upward to 50% of its eggs are killed by a tiny wasp, Megaphragma mymaripenne. Later feeding inside during its larval stage so pupating, the emerging adult parasite leaves a relatively large round hole in the tiny thrips egg. Conversely, when a greenhouse thrips emerges from an unparasitized egg, part of the egg shell is often visible at the side of the egg blister. Thripobius semiluteus parasitizes greenhouse thrips larvae. Thrips parasitized by this wasp's larvae get swollen around the head and plough black, in contrast to the pale color of unparasitized greenhouse thrips larvae. Dissimilar healthy black mature thrips, the blackness parasitized larvae are smaller and do not move.

There is niggling research-based information on the effectiveness of releasing thrips natural enemies in gardens and landscapes. Releasing purchased natural enemies, in well-nigh situations, is unlikely to provide satisfactory thrips control.

Cultural Control

Thrips species that feed on many different institute species ofttimes movement into gardens and landscapes when plants in weedy areas or grasslands begin to dry in spring or summertime. Avoid planting susceptible plants adjacent to these areas, and control nearby weeds that are alternate hosts of pest thrips. Grow plants that are well-adapted to conditions at that site. For example, plants adapted to grow in full sun can exist stressed when planted in shady conditions and may be more susceptible to thrips damage. Provide appropriate cultural care to go along plants vigorous and increment their tolerance to thrips damage. Keep plants well irrigated, and avoid excessive applications of nitrogen fertilizer, which may promote college populations of thrips. Old, spent flowers can harbor thrips, then their removal and disposal is sometimes recommended. However, the general do good of this practise in landscapes is unknown; and one-time blossoms also normally shelter beneficial predators of thrips.

Investigate the availability of resistant cultivars. For case, western blossom thrips more frequently damages fragrant, light-colored, or white roses. Rose cultivars, with sepals that remain tightly wrapped around the bud until just before blooms open, have fewer thrips problems. Where Cuban laurel thrips is a problem on Indian laurel fig you can institute Ficus microcarpa, "Green Gem," which is mostly resistant to this pest.

Pruning

Prune and destroy injured and infested terminals when managing a few modest specimen plants in the landscape. Avoid shearing plants, which is the clipping of dense foliage to maintain an even surface on formal hedges or creating specific shapes (topiary). Shearing stimulates thrips-susceptible new growth. Prune by cutting plants just above branch crotches and nodes instead of shearing off terminals.

Prune during specific times of the year to help command sure thrips. Clip off galled, rolled terminals of Indian laurel fig during winter to profoundly reduce thrips harm the next summer. Relatively few Cuban laurel thrips tin survive the winter outside of the protection provided by the leaves they gall. Instead of pruning avocado during Feb through April, January pruning may reduce thrips scarring of fruit. January pruning can induce additional avocado growth affluent during May fruit ready and reduce thrips scarring of fruit. When succulent leaf is abundant in spring thrips tend to remain and feed on leaves and not move to fruit. Pruning the interior of citrus copse can increment predaceous mite populations in the exterior awning, thereby reducing fruit scarring by citrus thrips.

Row Covers

Row covers, hot caps, and other types of cages with a fine mesh can exclude thrips and other insects from vegetables and other young herbaceous plants. Apply row covers before crops emerge or to pest-complimentary plants during planting. Plants are usually covered or caged only while they are young and near susceptible to damage. Once plants go larger or temperatures get warmer, remove covers to provide enough growing space and to prevent overheating. Drip or furrow irrigation is generally necessary when using row covers.

Any type of covering that excludes insects but allows light and air penetration tin exist used. With sturdy crops that practice not abound too tall, floating row covers (vented polyethylene, spunbonded polyester, point-bonded polypropylene) tin be placed on top of beds with no frames or hoops. The crop itself lifts the fabric equally it grows. For plants that grow upright or have sensitive tips that might exist damaged when pushing against covers, use hoops, plastic tunnels, or wire strung between posts to hold up covers. Wood, wire, or plastic frames covered with muslin, nylon, or other fine mesh can be used for several years.

Reflective Mulch

Mulch or mesh that reflects light interferes with certain flying insects' ability to locate plants. If the plants are initially pest-free, and relatively small in comparison with the area that is covered with cogitating material, reflective mulch tin delay or reduce the extent to which young plants become infested by winged aphids and adult leafhoppers, thrips, and whiteflies. In bloom and vegetable crops that are specially sensitive to insect-vectored viruses, the cost and effort of using cogitating mulch may be justified; because the mulch can be significantly more than effective than insecticides in preventing or delaying infection of small plants. Every bit plants grow larger, reflective mulch becomes increasingly less effective and other management methods may exist needed. Cogitating mulch ceases to repel insects by the time the institute awning covers more than than almost half of the soil surface.

Silver or gray is the most constructive color for synthetic cogitating mulch or mesh, but white also works. Some organic mulches (eastward.thou., straw) and living mulches (eastward.g., interplanting the crop with buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum) may too repel certain pests, but this is not every bit well documented. Commercially available synthetics include aluminum-metalized polyethylene and silvery-embossed polyethylene plastic films. If handled carefully, these may exist used for more than than one season. Aluminum foil is besides effective and may be suitable for a small garden; only it is expensive and difficult to reuse considering it is delicate to handle.

Synthetic mulch awarding methods include:

• Transplant seedlings through holes in the mulch.
• Utilize the mulch before plants emerge from the soil and leave a narrow, mulch-free strip along the planting row.
• Lay lightweight textile that allows light and air penetration over the top of a crop that is sturdy enough to lift the material equally it grows.

In addition to temporarily repelling certain flying insects, mulch may better growth of certain crops past increasing light levels, keeping soil warmer overnight, reducing weed growth, and conserving soil wet. Mulch can also have negative furnishings. It tin can increment ingather susceptibility to root diseases, preclude the use of overhead watering, and make information technology more than difficult to know whether you are maintaining proper soil moisture in the rooting zone of a plant. About recyclers will not accept plastics with soil on them; therefore, plastic mulches typically are disposed of in landfills. Investigate which fabric and methods are likely to work all-time in your state of affairs.

Chemical Command

Although thrips impairment is unsightly, it does not usually warrant the use of insecticides in gardens and landscapes. Feeding injury typically does not become credible until after tissue grows and expands. Thus, past the time impairment is noticed on ripening fruit or distorted terminals, the thrips that caused the damage are frequently gone. No pesticide application will restore the advent of injured tissue; plants will remain damaged until leaves drop, injury is pruned off, or new unblemished fruit is produced. Where found viruses are a trouble, insecticides typically do not kill thrips fast enough to preclude the transfer of virus from thrips to plants. Using row covers or other methods to prevent thrips infestation is the most constructive way to preclude infection by thrips-vectored viruses.

Thrips can be difficult to control effectively with insecticides, partly considering of their mobility, feeding behavior, and protected egg and pupal stages. Improper timing of application, failure to treat the proper plant parts, and inadequate spray coverage when using contact materials are common mistakes that can prevent potentially effective insecticides from actually providing control. Before using a pesticide, larn more about the biology of your pest species and the characteristics of available products past reading the label and consulting the Agile Ingredients Database in the online version of this Pest Notation at world wide web.ipm.ucanr.edu. Oftentimes you will learn chemic command cannot be effective until the side by side season, when new establish growth develops. Certain products are available just by hiring a professional applicator. If insecticides are used, combining their use with appropriate cultural practices and other methods normally improves the pest command.

Insecticides Most Compatible with IPM

Contact insecticides that practice not leave persistent residues can exist constructive for greenhouse thrips and other species that feed openly on plants. These products have low toxicity to people, pets, and pollinators and relatively trivial agin affect on biological pest command; because they practice non leave toxic residues that would impale natural enemies migrating in later their application. Contact insecticides include azadirachtin (AzaMax, Safer Brand BioNeem), insecticidal soaps (Safer), narrow-range oil (Bonide Horticultural Oil, Monterey Horticultural Oil), neem oil (Light-green Calorie-free Neem, Schultz Garden Safe Make Neem Oil), and pyrethrins, which many products combine with piperonyl butoxide (Ace Flower & Vegetable Insect Spray, Garden Tech Worry Free Make Concentrate). To be effective, contact sprays must exist applied to thoroughly cover buds, shoot tips, and other susceptible plant parts where thrips are present. On plants with a history of unacceptable damage, begin treatment early on when thrips or their damage is first observed. Unless directed otherwise past the product label, periodically repeat the awarding equally long as pest thrips and susceptible plant parts are both present.

Spinosad (Captain Jack'due south Deadbug Brew, Green Low-cal Lawn & Garden Spray with Spinosad 2, Monterey Garden Insect Spray) is by and large more than effective against thrips than the products higher up. Spinosad lasts 1 calendar week or more and moves short distances into sprayed tissue (has translaminar activity) to reach thrips feeding in protected plant parts. Adding horticultural oil to the spray mix tin can increase its persistence within found tissue. This insecticide is a fermentation product of a naturally occurring bacterium, and certain formulations are organically acceptable. Spinosad can be toxic to certain natural enemies (e.g., predatory mites, syrphid wing larvae) and bees when sprayed and for about 1 solar day later; practise not employ spinosad to plants that are flowering.

Insecticides More Toxic to Thrips and Beneficial Insects

Systemic insecticides are absorbed by one plant part (e.g., roots) and moved (translocated) to other plant parts. Trunk spray or injection of an effective, systemic, neonicotinoid insecticide can provide relatively rapid control. With soil drench or injection, there is a longer time delay between neonicotinoid awarding and insecticide activity. Neonicotinoids vary in effectiveness for thrips control. For example, dinotefuran (Safari), available to professional person applicators, can provide proficient command of thrips. Imidacloprid (Bayer Advanced Tree & Shrub Insect Command, Merit) commonly fails to provide satisfactory thrips control, and imidacloprid generally is not recommended for thrips.

Neonicotinoids have depression, moderate, or severe adverse impact on natural enemies and pollinators varying with the product, situation, and the species and life stage of invertebrate. Neonicotinoid insecticides can translocate to flowers and may damage natural enemies and pollinators that feed on nectar and pollen. Filibuster systemic insecticide awarding until afterward plants accept completed their seasonal flowering, unless the product label directs otherwise. Where the roots of nearby plants grow near treated plants, those other plants may also accept up some of the soil-applied insecticide. Filibuster soil application, when possible, until later on the nearby plants are likewise washed flowering.

To avoid tree injury and potential spread of pathogens on contaminated tools, employ a soil application or trunk spray whenever possible, instead of injecting or implanting copse with insecticide. Injecting or implanting trunks or roots injures trees, and it is difficult to repeatedly place insecticide at the proper depth. If injecting or implanting multiple trees, prevent the potential spread of pathogens on contaminated tools; before moving to work on each new tree, scrub any plant sap from tools or equipment that penetrate trees and disinfect them with a registered disinfectant (e.g., bleach). Avoid methods that cause large wounds, such as implants placed in holes drilled in trunks. Do non implant or inject roots or trunks more than than once a year.

Insecticides to Avoid

The systemic organophosphate acephate (Lilly Miller Fix-to-Use Systemic, Orthene) is available for ornamental, nonfood plants. Avoid using it. Acephate tin can be highly toxic to natural enemies and pollinators and tin can crusade spider mites to become arable and damage plants after its application.

Avert foliar sprays of other organophosphate insecticides (east.m., malathion), carbamates (carbaryl*), or pyrethroids (eastward.g., bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, fluvalinate, and permethrin). These materials are highly toxic to natural enemies and pollinators, can cause spider mite outbreaks, and are non specially effective confronting most thrips. Considering their apply in landscapes and gardens can run or wash off into tempest drains and contaminate municipal wastewater, these insecticides are being found in surface water and are adversely affecting nontarget, aquatic organisms.

Greenhouse Thrips Direction

Greenhouse thrips can infest many establish species but primarily is a pest of evergreen, broadleaved perennials. It occurs mainly on the underside of leaves and on fruit clusters or other institute parts that touch each other. Greenhouse thrips is sluggish and the adults tend not to wing. Individuals feed in groups and populations usually begin in a limited role of the institute and spread slowly. If the underside of leaves on susceptible plants are regularly inspected to permit early detection and removal of new infestations, pruning off colonies can be effective.

Greenhouse thrips is readily controlled with thorough application of contact sprays such as horticultural oil, natural pyrethrins (plus piperonyl butoxide), or insecticidal soaps to the underside of infested leaves. Echo applications may be necessary. Keep in mind that greenhouse thrips accept natural enemies in the landscape (discussed above). Appraise whether spraying is warranted and select materials that are least toxic to natural enemies.

Table 1. Some Mutual Pest Thrips and Their Host Plants (see photos).

Thrips			Appearanceone
Common Proper name	Scientific Proper name	Host Plants	Master Damage	Adults	Larval Trunk
avocado thrips	Scirtothrips perseae	avocado	scabby brown scars on fruit	3 carmine spots atop caput, brown lines separating segments on pale yellow abdomen	pale yellow
bean thrips	Caliothrips fasciatus	bean, occasionally other legumes	brown, distorted leaf and seedling terminals	blackish torso with white wing bands	yellow to orangish
citrus thrips	Scirtothrips citri	blueberries and citrus, generally not damaging to its many other hosts	scabby silver scars on citrus fruit; distorted huckleberry leaves and shoots	light orangish xanthous to white trunk	light orang- ish yellowish to white
Cuban laurel thrips	Gynaikothrips ficorum	laurel fig or Indian laurel, Ficus microcarpa	rolled, podlike, darkscarred terminals; galls	blackish body	yellowish to white
greenhouse thrips	Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis	more often than not perennials with thick, wide leaves, including avocado, azalea, hypericum, laurel (English and Grecian), photinia, and rhododendron	leaves bleached with black excrement on undersides; scabby fruit	black body with stake wings	white to yellow
myoporum thrips	Klambothrips myopori	Myoporum laetum, M. pacificum	leaves swollen, curled, and distorted; terminals galled	blackness body	early instars are white to yellowish, pupae are orangish
onion thrips	Thrips tabaci	vegetables including garlic, onion, and pepper; many herbaceous ornamentals where it's usually non damaging	stippled and scarred petals, leaves, and other institute parts; distorted terminals	yellow to dark brownish torso	yellowish to orangish
toyon thrips	Liothrips ilex	Christmas berry or toyon	crinkled, undersized, sometimes blackened terminal leaves	black body with pale wings	xanthous
western flower thrips	Frankliniella occidentalis	many herbaceous ornamentals (impatiens, petunia); vegetables (cucurbits, pepper); fruits (grape, strawberry); some shrubs and copse (rose, stone fruit)	stippled and scarred petals, leaves, and other plant parts; distorted terminals, vectors tospoviruses affecting herbaceous plants	thick, bristlelike hairs at the tip of the abdomen; belly extends across wing tips at residuum; individuals vary profoundly in color	yellowish to orangish

ⁱ Colour does not reliably distinguish among thrips, which can be accurately identified to species only by an skillful examination of microscopic characters.

Tabular array 2. Some Common Benign Predatory Thrips (see photos).

Thrips		Advent
Common Name	Scientific Name	Where observed	Adults	Larvae
banded-fly thrips	Aeolothrips spp.1	amid pest mites and thrips	black body, white wings with black bands	xanthous body
black hunter thrips	Haplothrips mali 2	amid mites, scales, and pest thrips	dark dark-brown or entirely black body with long abdomen, white wings, much more active than like-looking greenhouse thrips	night, reddish-brown body
Franklinothrips or vespiform thrips	Franklinothrips orizabensis, F. vespiformis 1	among lace bugs, mites, and pest thrips	mostly black body, with stake or white areas; distinctly narrow where abdomen meets thorax	yellow to orange body, swollen abdomen with red or night orange band, body more stout or oval-shaped than virtually thrips
sixspotted thrips	Scolothrips sexmaculatus 3	in colonies of mites	3 nighttime blotches on each forewing, body pale to yellowish	yellowish to whitish trunk
Predatory thrips can sometimes exist distinguished from pest species because predators are seldom seen at loftier levels as can exist mutual with certain pest thrips.

Families: ¹ Aeolothripidae; ² Phlaeothripidae; ³ Thripidae

*As of Baronial 1, 2020, pesticides containing the active ingredient carbaryl are restricted use materials in California. A valid pesticide applicator'southward license is required for their possession and use. For more than information meet the California Department of Pesticide Regulation website.

Alarm ON THE Use OF PESTICIDES

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REFERENCES

Bethke, J. A., and L. Bates. 2013. Pest Notes: Myoporum Thrips. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 74165.

Dreistadt, Due south. H., J. K. Clark, and M. L. Flintstone. 2001. Integrated Pest Management for Floriculture and Nurseries. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 3402.

Dreistadt, S. H., J. K. Clark, and M. L. Flint. 2004. Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 3359.

Flint, 1000. L. 1998. Pests of the Garden and Small Subcontract: A Grower's Guide to Using Less Pesticide. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 3332.

Hoddle, M. S., Fifty. A. Mound, and D. Paris. 2008. Thrips of California 2012 (CD-ROM). Australia: The University of Queensland.

Hodges, A., Southward. Ludwig, 50. Osborne, and G. B. Edwards. 2009. Pest Thrips of the United States: Field Identification Guide. USDA-CSREES Regional Integrated Pest Direction Centers .

Moritz, Thou., C. A. O'Donnell, and One thousand. Parrella. 2009. Pest Thrips of Due north America - associated with domestic and imported crops.  Eye for Biological Information technology, The Academy of Queensland.  DVD ISBN 978-1-86499-940-2.

PUBLICATION INFORMATION

Pest Notes: Thrips

UC ANR Publication 7429        

Authors: J. A. Bethke, UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE), San Diego Co.; S. H. Dreistadt, UC Statewide IPM Programme, Davis; and L. M. Varela, UC Statewide IPM Programme and UCCE Sonoma Co. Revised from a previous edition past P. A. Phillips, UC Statewide IPM Program, Ventura Co. (retired), and C. A. O�Donnell, UC Davis.

Produced past University of California Statewide IPM Program

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